Therefore, sexual orientation tends to covary on a masculinity–femininity continuum with other psychobehavioural traits such as self-ascribed masculinity–femininity, occupational preferences, sociosexuality, personality traits, mental rotation, and verbal fluency ( Rahman et al., 2003 Luoto et al., 2019a Lippa, 2020 Xu et al., 2020) (though for some exceptions, e.g., bisexual women’s higher male-typicality relative to lesbian women on some psychobehavioural measures, see Luoto et al., 2019b Luoto and Rantala, 2021). Neurodevelopmental mechanisms underlying sexual orientation also lead to variation in a number of psychobehavioural traits ( Xu et al., 2017 Luoto et al., 2019a Luoto, 2020b). One outcome of the sexual differentiation of the mammalian brain is variation in sexual orientation ( Luoto et al., 2019a, b Swift-Gallant et al., 2019 Bogaert and Skorska, 2020). In this article, those predictions are brought to bear on language use in literary art spanning more than 200 years.
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To broaden the current understanding of sex differences ( Archer, 2019 Luoto and Varella, 2021) and sexual orientation differences ( Xu et al., 2017 Luoto et al., 2019a Luoto, 2020a), it is valuable to also broaden the material in which predictions from prevailing hypotheses on sex differences/similarities and sexual orientation differences/similarities are tested. Advances in cognitive neuroscience and evolutionary science have increased our knowledge of mammalian sexual differentiation of the brain and how this process creates sex differences and sexual orientation differences in various psychobehavioural traits in humans ( Archer, 2019 Luoto et al., 2019a Arnold, 2020 Luoto and Varella, 2021), but the way in which such differences may be reflected in language use is not well known. Psychological differences such as men’s higher systemising and women’s higher empathising, or men’s higher things orientation and women’s higher people orientation, have been reported in a variety of domains ( Greenberg et al., 2018 Archer, 2019 Luoto, 2020b), with some psychologists arguing that the true extent of sex differences in human personality has been consistently underestimated ( Del Giudice et al., 2012). Psychological sex differences are perennially interesting to both scientists and laypeople. The findings on this large corpus of 66.9 million words indicate how psychological group differences based on sex and sexual orientation manifest in language use in two centuries of literary art. Furthermore, consistent with predictions from cognitive neuroscience, novels ( n = 158) by lesbian authors showed minor signs of psycholinguistic masculinisation, while novels ( n = 167) by homosexual men had a female-typical psycholinguistic pattern, supporting the gender shift hypothesis of homosexuality.
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The psycholinguistic sex differences largely aligned with known psychological sex differences, such as empathising–systemising, people–things orientation, and men’s more pronounced spatial cognitive styles and abilities.
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Using computerised text analysis (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count: LIWC 2015), this study found substantial psycholinguistic sexual dimorphism in a large corpus of English-language novels ( n = 304) by heterosexual authors. Advances in psychology and cognitive neuroscience have shown the importance of sex and sexual orientation for various psychobehavioural traits, but the extent to which such differences manifest in language use is largely unexplored. Psychological sex differences have been studied scientifically for more than a century, yet linguists still debate about the existence, magnitude, and causes of such differences in language use.